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=====Parity-time symmetric WPT=====

====PT symmetry====

One of the main challenges of near-field WPT, in particulary IPT, is the sensitivity of the system towards changes in distance between transmitter and receiver, misalignment, load variation and changes in frequency. As a result, practial WPT systems often experience unstable behaviour.

A way to increase the stability of the WPT system is applying parity-time symmetric WPT (PT-symmetric WPT).

The name "parity-symmetric" refers to the fact that the circuit does not change when //both// parity and time are changed: 
  * **Changing parity**: the position is changed, i.e., the spatial coordinate is flipped, e.g., $x$ becomes $-x$. In the context of WPT (due to the fact that the wavelengths are long compared to the circuit), it corresponds to switching the labels of transmitter (1) and receiver (2), e.g., a coil $L_1$ at the transmitter side becomes $L_2$, the coil at receiver side, and vice versa. In other words, there has to be symmetry present in Kirchoff's laws.
  * **Changing time**: the direction of time is flipped from $t$ to $-t$. Since current is the time derivative of charge, it results in flipping the current in the context of WPT. If we apply this on Ohm's law, this results in changing the sign of a resistor: we get negative resistors! Instead of a linear current decrease when the voltages lowers, we now have a lineary increasing current for a voltage reduction. Energy is now not dissipated any more in the resistor, but the negative resistor generates energy. The negative resistance is not any more a passive component, but an active component, supplying energy to the system. For inductors and capacitors, nothing changes when we apply time reversal. Applying Ohm's law also inverts the current, but the time derivative in the voltage-current relationship flips the sign again, resulting in a cancellation of the minus sign.

A WPT circuit is PT-symmetric if it remains exactly the same when (1) you first switch the indices from transmitter and receiver and then (2) flip the sign of all resistors. Do not change the sign of the reactances (inductors and capacitors).

====Negative resistor====

There are two main ways to realize a negative resistor. 
  * The first one uses an **operational amplifier** (opamp). However, this method is only suitable for low power (mW) levels, and as such, it is not very useful for WPT applications. 
  * As a result, a **controlled power electronic inverter** is typically used. It measures the output voltage and/or current of the electronic inverter and sends it to a controller module. This controller adjusts the driver to realize a fixed phase difference between the output voltage and current of the inverter. As a result, a negative resitor (= 0° or 180° phase difference between voltage and current) can be realized.

The negative resistor is only realized within a certain voltage or current region. 
  * In the passive sign convention, with R<0, the AC current and voltage are in opposite phase (180° phase difference).
  * In the active sign convention, with R<0, the AC current and voltage are in phase (0° phase difference)

{{ :parity-time_symmetric_wpt-active_and_passive_sign_convention.png?400 |}}

====Circuit analysis====

Consider the equivalent circuit of a series-series (SS) compensated IPT circuit, with $R_1$ and $R_2$ the losses in the system (mainly the series resistance of the inductors), $R_L$ the load and $-R_N$ the supply, represented by a negative resistor. $V_1 (I_1)$ and $V_2 (I_2)$ represents the voltage (current) at the input port (over the supply $-R_N$) and output port ($R_L), respectively.

From Kirchoff's laws, we obtain:
$$\begin{bmatrix}
R_1+j(\omega L_1-\frac{1}{\omega C_1}) & j\omega L_{12}\\ j\omega L_{12} & R_2+j(\omega L_2-\frac{1}{\omega C_2})
\end{bmatrix}
\begin{bmatrix}
I_1 \\ I_2
\end{bmatrix}
=
\begin{bmatrix}
V_1 \\ V_2
\end{bmatrix}
$$

Since $V_1=-(-R_N)I_1$ and $V_2=-R_LI_2$, we obtain:

$$\begin{bmatrix}
-R_N+R_1+j(\omega L_1-\frac{1}{\omega C_1}) & j\omega L_{12}\\ j\omega L_{12} & R_L+R_2+j(\omega L_2-\frac{1}{\omega C_2})
\end{bmatrix}
\begin{bmatrix}
I_1 \\ I_2
\end{bmatrix}
=
\begin{bmatrix}
0 \\ 0
\end{bmatrix}(1)
$$

In order to obtain a PT-symmetric circuit, Kirchoff's laws have to be symmetric. As a result, the following conditions must be met:
$$L_1=L_2$$
$$C_1=C_2$$
$$-R_N+R_1=R_L+R_2$$

Note that the first two conditions imply that the self LC-resonance frequency of the transmitter resonator must equals the self resonance of the receiver circuit: $\omega_1=\omega_2$ since $1/\sqrt{L_1C_1}=1/\sqrt{L_2C_2}$

The same derivation can be made for a PP WPT circuit. However, other PT-symmetric conditions are obtained:
$$L_1=L_2$$
$$C_1=C_2$$
$$R_1=R_2=0$$
$$R_N=R_L$$
Note in particulary that a PP topology is only exact PT-symmetric if no internal losses are present. In good WPT systems, the resistive losses should be small, resulting in a good approximate PT-symmetric PP system.

SS and PP: exact PT-symmetric
SP and PS: not PT-symmetric, but approximations are possible: if the coupling factor is low, and the coil quality factors are large (i.e. the resistances $R_1$ and $R_2$ are small), then SP and PS is in a good approximation also PT-symmetric, even though the circuits are obviously not parity symmetric (e.g., SP: serie in transmitter vs parallel compensation at receiver side == not symmetric).

PT-symmetric: eigenvalues are pure imaginary => even when there are losses present, no change in the eigenstates in time + energy distribution of the mode on both transmitting and receiving sides is mirror-symmetrical.

Broken PT-symmetric: eigenstate amplitude increases or decays exponentially

The supply is now represented by a negative resistance. In essence, this is an active source whose output voltage and source are in phase.

====Resonance frequencies====

Solving equation (1) for frequency results in equating the determinant to zero:

$$
[-R_N+R_1+j(\omega L_1-\frac{1}{\omega C_1})].[R_L+R_2+j(\omega L_2-\frac{1}{\omega C_2})]+\omega^2L_{12}^2=0      
$$
(2)

===Exact PT-symmetric state===

In order to obtain a PT-symmetric circuit, Kirchoff's laws have to be symmetric. As a result, the following conditions must be met, as stated earlier:
$$L_1=L_2$$
$$C_1=C_2$$
$$-R_N+R_1=R_L+R_2$$ (3)

Solving equation (2) with respect to $\omega$ results in two solutions:
$$\omega_{o1}=\frac{\omega_0}{\sqrt{2(1-k^2)}}\sqrt{2-(\frac{R_2+R_L}{\omega_0 L_2})^2+\sqrt{[2-(\frac{R_2+R_L}{\omega_0 L_2})^2]^2-4(1-k^2)}}$$
$$\omega_{o2}=\frac{\omega_0}{\sqrt{2(1-k^2)}}\sqrt{2-(\frac{R_2+R_L}{\omega_0 L_2})^2-\sqrt{[2-(\frac{R_2+R_L}{\omega_0 L_2})^2]^2-4(1-k^2)}}$$

where we introduced the coupling factor $k$ and the self resonance of each resonator $\omega_0$

$$ k = \frac{L_{12}}{\sqrt{L_1L_2}}$$
$$ \omega_0=\frac{1}{\sqrt{L_1C_1}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{L_2C_2}}$$

Note that the first two conditions for exact PT-symmetry imply that the self LC-resonance frequency $\omega_1$ of the transmitter resonator equals the self resonance $\omega_2$ of the receiver circuit: $\omega_1=\omega_2=\omega_0$.

The solutions $\omega_{o1}$ and $\omega_{o2}$ are only real when the following condition is met:

$$ k \geq k_c=\sqrt{1-\frac{1}{4}[2-(\frac{R_2+R_L}{\omega_0 L_2})^2]^2}$$

We call $k_c$ the critical coupling coefficient.

In other words, we can only achieve a PT-symmetrical system is the coupling factor $k$ is higher than $k_c$.

===Broken PT-symmetric state===

If $k<k_c$, we do not achieve a PT-symmetrical system. We call this the "broken PT-symmetric state".

From the imaginary part of equation (2), we find the only solution:

$$\omega_{o3}=\omega_0$$

From the real part of equation (2), we find that the solution $\omega_{o3}=\omega_0$ only holds when the value of the negative resistor is given by:

$$R_N=R_1+\frac{\omega_0 k^2L_1L_2}{R_2+R_L}$$ (4)

===Conclusion resonance frequency SS-circuit===

When $k \geq k_c$, there are two resonance frequencies, $\omega_{o1}$ and $\omega_{o2}$. In this case, from equation (3), the negative resistor automatically compensates the other resistors in the network $R_1, R_2$ and $R_L$.

When $k=k_c$, both resonance frequencies coincide into $\omega_{o3}=\omega_0$

For $k<k_c$, the self resonant frequency, $\omega_{o3}=\omega_0$, remains the only resonance frequency in the system. From equation (4), it can be seen that the negative resistor is dependent on the coupling factor $k$ and does not automatically compensates the resistances in the network.

FIGURE k vs frequency (e..g, FIG 3.5) HERE?

The same conclusions can be drawn for the PP compensated circuit.

====Current and voltage ratio====

From equation (1), both the current ratio $I_1/I_2$ and the voltage ratio $U_{in}/U_L$ can be determined, with $U_{in}$ the voltage over the negative resistor, and $U_L$ the voltage over the load.

MOETEN DIE WAARDEN IN DE FIGUUR KOMEN?

===Exact PT-symmetric state===

Substituting the conditions for the exact PT-symmetric state, equation (3), and the corresponding resonance frequencies $\omega_{o1}$ and $\omega_{o2}$ into the current and voltage ratio expression, results in:

$$ \frac{I_1}{I_2}=1$$
$$ \frac{U_{in}}{U_{L}}=\frac{R_1+R_2+R_L}{R_L}$$

We notice that, in the exact PT-symmetric region, the current and voltage ratios are constant: they do NOT depend on the value of the coupling factor $k$.

===Broken PT-symmetric state===

Substituting the value for the negative resistor in the broken PT-symmetric region, equation (4), and the self-resonance frequency $\omega_{o3}=\omega_0$ into the current and voltage expressions, results in expressions that are dependent on the coupling factor $k$. In other words, a varying coupling between transmitter and receivers changes the current and voltage ratios in the broken PT-symmetric region.

====Output power and efficiency====

===Exact PT-symmetric state===

Calculating the output power $P_L$ in the load, taken into account the conditions and resonance frequencies in the PT-symmetric region, result into:

$$ P_L=\frac{L_1L_2R_LU_{in}^2}{L_1^2(R_2+R_L)^2+2L_1L_2R_1(R_2+R_L)+L_2^2R_1^2}$$

Analogously, we get for the power transfer efficiency $\eta$:

$$ \eta=\frac{L_1R_L}{L_2R_1+L_1(R_2+R_L} $$

These two equations indicitate the important aspect of parity-time symmetric WPT: both the output power and efficiency are constant, i.e., independent on the coupling factor $k$, in the exact symmetric PT-region ($k \geq k_c$).

===Broken PT-symmetric state===

This is not the case in the broken PT-symmetric region, when $k<k_c$. Taken into account the value for the negative resistor in the broken PT-symmetric region, equation (4), and the self-resonance frequency $\omega_{o3}=\omega_0$, it can be calculated that

$$ P_L=\frac{\omega_0^2k^2L_1L_2R_LU_{in}^2}{[\omega_0^2k^2L_1L_2+R_1(R_2+R_L)]^2}$$

$$ \eta=\frac{\omega_0^2k^2L_1L_2R_L}{R_1(R_2+R_L)^2+\omega_0^2k^2L_1L_2(R_2+R_L)}$$

We can see that now both the output power and efficiency are NOT constant; they change with varying coupling factor $k$.

FIGUUR 3.6 HIER?

====Efficiency====

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<color #808080>**References**</color>
  * <color #808080>Zhang, B., Shu, X., & Wu, L. (2025). Introduction to PT-Symmetric Wireless Power Transfer. In Parity-Time Symmetric Wireless Power Transfer (pp. 1-26). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.</color>
  * <color #808080>Assawaworrarit, S., Yu, X., & Fan, S. (2017). Robust wireless power transfer using a nonlinear parity–time-symmetric circuit. Nature, 546(7658), 387-390.</color>
  * <color #808080>Chen, H., Qiu, D., Rong, C., & Zhang, B. (2023). A double-transmitting coil wireless power transfer system based on parity time symmetry principle. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 38(11), 13396-13404.</color>
  *  <color #808080>Dong, W., Li, C., Zhang, H., & Ding, L. (2019). Wireless power transfer based on current non‐linear PT‐symmetry principle. IET Power Electronics, 12(7), 1783-1791.</color>
  * <color #808080>Li, C., Dong, W., Ding, L., Zhang, H., & Sun, H. (2020). Transfer characteristics of the nonlinear parity-time-symmetric wireless power transfer system at detuning. Energies, 13(19), 5175.</color>
  * <color #808080>Wu, J., Li, K., Zeng, J., & Hui, S. Y. R. (2024). On the limitations of the coupled mode theory and parity-time symmetry for near-field wireless power transfer research. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 39(5), 6433-6441.</color>
  * <color #808080>Zeng, C., Sun, Y., Li, G., Li, Y., Jiang, H., Yang, Y., & Chen, H. (2020). High-order parity-time symmetric model for stable three-coil wireless power transfer. Physical Review Applied, 13(3), 034054.</color>
  * <color #808080>Rong, C., Zhang, B., Wei, Z., Wu, L., & Shu, X. (2021). A wireless power transfer system for spinal cord stimulation based on generalized parity–time symmetry condition. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 58(1), 1330-1339.</color>
  * <color #808080>Wu, L., Zhang, B., & Zhou, J. (2020). Efficiency improvement of the parity-time-symmetric wireless power transfer system for electric vehicle charging. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 35(11), 12497-12508.</color>
  * <color #808080>Shu, X., Zhang, B., Wei, Z., Rong, C., & Sun, S. (2021). Extended-distance wireless power transfer system with constant output power and transfer efficiency based on parity-time-symmetric principle. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 36(8), 8861-8871.</color>
  * <color #808080>Ye, Z., Yang, M., & Chen, P. Y. (2021, June). Multi-band parity-time-symmetric wireless power transfer systems. In 2021 IEEE Wireless Power Transfer Conference (WPTC) (pp. 1-4). IEEE.</color>
  * <color #808080>Zhou, J., Zhang, B., Xiao, W., Qiu, D., & Chen, Y. (2018). Nonlinear parity-time-symmetric model for constant efficiency wireless power transfer: Application to a drone-in-flight wireless charging platform. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 66(5), 4097-4107.</color>
  * <color #808080>Luo, C., Qiu, D., Lin, M., & Zhang, B. (2020). Circuit model and analysis of multi-load wireless power transfer system based on parity-time symmetry. Energies, 13(12), 3260.</color>

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